IFS documentation Front Page

Table of contents

Chapter 1. Overview

Chapter 2. Radiation

Chapter 3. Turbulent diffusion and interactions with the surface

Chapter 4. Subgrid-scale orographic drag

Chapter 5. Convection

Chapter 6. Clouds and large-scale precipitation

Chapter 7. Land suface parametrization

Chapter 8. Methane oxidation

Chapter 9. Climatological data

REFERENCES

First Section
Previous Section

REFERENCES

Abramopoulos, F., Rosenzweig, C. and Choudury, 1988: Improved ground hydrology calculations for global climate models (GCMs): Soil water movement and evapotranspiration. J. Climate, 1, 921-941

Arakawa, A. and Schubert, W. H., 1974: Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with the large-scale environment. Part I., J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 674-701

Baines, P. G. and Palmer, T. N., 1990: `Rationale for a new physically based parametrization of subgrid-scale orographic effects'. Technical Memorandum 1699. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts.

Baumgartner, A., Mayer, H. and Metz, W. , 1977: Weltweite Verteilung des Rauhigkeitparameters zo mit Anwendung auf die Energiedissipation an der Erdoberfläche, Meteorol. Rundsch., 30, 43-48

Beljaars, A.C.M. , 1987: The influence of sampling and filtering on measured wind gusts, J. Atmos. Ocean. Techn., 4, 613-626.

Beljaars, A. C. M., 1991: `Numerical schemes for parametrization'. Seminar Proceedings on Numerical Methods in Atmospheric Models. Volume 2. ECMWF, Reading, England.

Beljaars, A. C. M., 1994: The parametrization of surface fluxes in large-scale models under free convection. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 121, 255-270.

Beljaars, A. C. M., 1995: `The impact of some aspects of the boundary layer scheme in the ECMWF model'. Seminar Proceedings on Parametrization of sub-grid scale physical processes. ECMWF, Reading, England.

Beljaars, A. C. M. and Betts, A. K., 1993: `Validation of the boundary layer representation in the ECMWF model'. Seminar Proceedings on Validation of Models over Europe. Volume 2. ECMWF, Reading, England.

Beljaars, A. C. M. and Holtslag, A. A. M.,1991: A software library for the calculation of surface fluxes over land and sea. Environ. Software, 5, 60-68

Betjaars, A. C. M. and Viterbo, P., 1994: The sensitivity of winter evaporation to the formulation of aerodynamic resistance in the ECMWF model. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 71, 135-149

Beljaars, A.C.M. and Viterbo P., 1999: The role of the boundary layer in a numerical weather prediction model, in: Clear and cloudy boundary layers, A.A.M. Holtslag and P.G. Duynkerke (eds.), North Holland Publishers.

Bennets, D. A. and Hoskins, B. J., 1979: Conditional symmetric instability - a possible explanation for frontal rainbands. Q. J. R.. Meteorol. Soc., 105, 945-962.

Bennets, D. A. and Sharp, J. C.,1982: The relevance of conditional symmetric instability to the prediction of meso-scale frontal rainbands. Q. J. R . Meteorol. Soc., 108, 595-602.

Betts, A.K., and J.H. Ball, 1997: Albedo over the boreal forest. J. Geophys. Res., 102D, 28,901-28,909.

Betts, A.K., P. Viterbo, and E.F. Wood, 1998: Surface energy and water balances for the Arkansas-Red river basin from the ECMWF reanalysis. J. Climate, 11, 2881-2897.

Betts, A. K., Ball, J. H. and Beljaars, A. C. M., 1993: Comparison between the land surface response of the ECMWF model and the FIFE-1987 data. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 119, 975-1001

Bithell, M., Gray, L. J., Harries, J. E., Rusell, J. M. III and Tuck, A. F., 1994: Synoptic interpretation of measurements from HALOE. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2942-2956

Blackadar, 1962: The vertical distribution of wind and turbulent exchange in a neutral atmosphere. J. Appl. Meteorol, 30, 327-341.

Blondin, C., 1991: `Parameterization of land-surface processes in numerical weather prediction'. Pp. 31-54 in Land surface evaporation:Measurement and parameterization. Eds T. J. Schmugge and J. C. André, Springe

Bonnel, B., Fouquart, Y., Vanhoutte, J.-C. , Fravalo, C. and Rosset, R., 1983: Radiative properties of some African and mid-latitude stratocumulus clouds. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 56, 409-428.

Brankovic, C. and Van Maanen, J., 1985: `The ECMWF climate system'. ECMWF Tech. Memo No. 109

Browning, K.A., Hardman, M. E., Harrold, T. W. and Pardoe, C. W., 1973: The structure of rainbands within a mid-latitude depression. Q. J. R . Meteorol. Soc., 99, 215-231.

Brasseur, G. and Solomon, S., 1984: Aeronomy of the middle atmosphere. D. Reidel Publishing Co. Dordrecht

Brutsaert, W., 1982: Evaporation in the atmosphere. D.Reidel

Carlson, T. N., 1991: Recent advance in modeling the infrared temperature of vegetation canopies. Pp. 349-358 in Land surface evaporation: Measurement and parametrization, Eds T. J. Schmugge and J. C. André, Springer

Cheng, L., Yip, T.-C. and Cho, H.-R., 1980: Determination of mean cumulus cloud vorticity from GATE A/B-scale potential vorticity budget. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 797-811.

Clapp, R. B. and Hornberger, G. M., 1978: Empirical equations for some soil hydraulic properties. Water Resources Res., 14, 601-604

Claussen, M., 1990: Area-averaging of surface fluxes in a neutrally stratified, horizontally inhomogeneous atmospheric boundary layer, Atmos. Environ., 24A, 1349-1360.

Clough, S. A. and M. I. Iacono, 1995: Line-by-line calculation of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates, 2. Application to carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide and the halocarbons. J. Geophys. Res., 100D, 16519-16536

Clough, S.A., F.X. Kneizys, and R.W. Davies, 1989: Line shape and the water vapor continuum. Atmos. Res., 23, 229-241.

Clough, S.A., M.J. Iacono, and J.-L. Moncet, 1992: Line-by-line calculations of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates: Application to water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 97D, 15761-15786.

Coakley, J. A. Jr. and Chylek, P., 1975: The two-stream approximation in radiation transfer: Including the angle of the incident radiation. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 409-418.

Cosby, B. J., Hornberger, G. M., Clapp, R. B. and Ginn, 1984: A ststistical exploration of the relationships of soil moisture characteristics to the physical properties of soils. Water Resources Res., 20, 682-690

Deardorff, J. W., 1976: Usefulness of liquid-water potential temperature in a shallow-cloud model. J. Appl. Meteorol., 15, 98-102

Deardorff, J. W., 1978: Efficient prediction of ground surface temperature and moisture, with inclusion of a layer of vegetation. J. Geophys. Res., 83C, 1889-1903

Delworth, T. L. and Manabe, S., 1989: The influence of soil wetness on near-surface atmospheric variability. J. Climate, 2, 1447-1462

Deschamps, P.-Y., Herman, M. and Tanre, D., 1983: `Modelisation du rayonnement solaire reflechi par l'atmosphere et la terre, entre 0.35 et 4 microns'. Rapport ESA 4393/80/F/DC(SC)

De Vries, D. A., 1975: `Heat transfer in soils'. Pp. 4-28 in Heat and mass transfer in the biosphere. Part I: Transfer processes in teh plant environment, Eds. D. A. de Vries and N. H. Afgan, Wiley

Dickinson, R. E., 1984: `Modeling evapotranspiration for three-dimensional climate models'. Pp. 58-72 in Climate processes and climate sensitivity. Geophys. Monogr. 29, American Geophysical Union

Dickinson, R. E., 1988: The force-restore model for surface temperatures and its generalizations. J. Climate, 1, 1086-1097

Dickinson, R. E., Henderson-Sellers, A., Kennedy, P. J. and Wilson, M. F., 1986: `Boisphere-atmosphere transfer scheme(BATS) for the NCAR community model'. NCAR Technical note, NCAR/TN-275+STR

Dickinson, R. E., Henderson-Sellers, A., Rosenzweig, C. and Sellers, P. J., 1991: Evapotranspiration models with canopy resistance for use in climate models: A review. Agric. For. Meteorol., 54, 373-388

Dolman, A. J. and Gregory, D., 1992: The parameterization of rainfall interception in GCMs. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 118, 445-467

Dorman, J. L. and Sellers, P. J., 1989: A global climatology of albedo, roughness length and stomatal resistance for atmospheric general circluation models as represented by the simple biosphere model (SB). J. Appl. Meterol., 28, 833-855

Douville, H., J.-F. Royer, and J.-F. Mahfouf, 1995: A new snow paramterization for the Météo-France climate model. Part I: Validation in stand alone experiments. Submitted to Climate Dyn.

Driedonks, A. G. M. and Tennekes, H., 1984: Entrainment effects in the well mixed atmospheric boundary layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 30, 75-105.

Dyer, A. J., 1974: A review of flux-profile relationships. Boundary-Layer Meteorol, 7, 363-372.

Ebert, E. E. and Curry, J. A., 1992: A parametrization of ice cloud optical properties for climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 97D, 3831-3836.

Ekholm, S., 1996: A full coverage high-resolution topographic model of Greenland computed from a variety of digital elevation data, J. Geophys. Res., 101 (B10), 21961-21972.

Ebert, E. E. and Curry, J. A., 1993: An intermediate one-dimensional thermodynamic sea ice model for investigating ice-atmosphere interactions. J. Geophys. Res., 98C, 10,085-10,109.

Elsasser, W. M., 1942: `Heat transfer by infrared radiation in the atmosphere'. Harvard Meteorological Studies No.6, 107 pp.

Emanuel, K. A., 1982: Inertial instability and mesoscale convective systems. Part II: Symmetric CISK in a baroclinic flow. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1080-1097.

Etling, D., 1989: On atmsopheric vortex streets in the wake of large islands. Meteor. Atmos Phys., 41, 157-164.

Fels, S. B., 1979: Simple strategies for inclusion of Voigt effects in infrared cooling rate calculations. Appl. Optics, 18, 2634-2637.

Fortuin, J. P. F., and Langematz, U., 1994: An update on the global ozone climatology and on concurrent ozone and temperature trends. Proceedings SPIE, Atmos. Sensing and Modeling, 2311, 207-216.

Foster, D. S., 1958: Thunderstorm gusts compared with computed downdraught speeds. Mon. Weather Rev., 86, 91-94.

Fouquart, Y., 1974: Utilisation des approximants de Pade pour l'etude des largeurs equivalentes de raies formees en atmosphere diffusante. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 14, 497-508.

Fouquart, Y., 1987: `Radiative transfer in climate modeling'. NATO Advanced Study Institute on Physically-Based Modeling and Simulation of Climate and Climate Changes, Erice, Sicily, 11-23 May 1986, M.E. Schlesinger, Ed., 223-283.

Fouquart, Y. and Bonnel, B., 1980: Computations of solar heating of the earth's atmosphere: A new parameterization. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 53, 35-62.

Fritsch, J. M., and Chappell, C. G., 1980: Numerical prediction of convectively driven mesoscale pressure systems. Part I: Convective parametrization. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 1722-1733.

Fu, Q. and K.-N. Liou, 1992: On the correlated k-distribution method for radiative transfer in non-homogeneous atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 2139-2156.

Fu, Q., P. Yang, and W. B. Sun, 1998: An accurate parametrization of the infrared radiative properties of cyrrus clouds of climate models. J. Climate, 11, 2223-2237

Geleyn, J.-F. and Hollingsworth, A., 1979: An economical analytical method for the computation of the interaction between scattering and line absorption of radiation. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 52, 1-16.

Gesch, D.B. and Larson, K.S., 1998: Techniques for development of global 1-kilometer digital elevation models, in: Proceedings, Pecora Thirteenth Symposium, Soiux Falls, South Dakota, August 20-22, 1996 (CD-ROM), Am. Soc. Photogrammetry Remote Sens., Bethesda, Md

.Giorgetta, M. A. and Morcrette, J.-J., 1995: Voigt line approximation in the ECMWF radiation scheme. Mon. Weather Rev.,

Godfrey, J. S. and Beljaars, A. C. M., 1991: On the turbulent fluxes of buoyancy, heat and moisture at the air-sea interface at low wind speed. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 22043-22048.

Goutorbe, J.-P., Noilan, J., Valancogne, C. and Cuenca, R. H., 1989: soil moisture variations during HAPEX-MOBILHY., Ann. Geophys., 7, 415-426

Gregory, D., 1997: Parametrization of convective momentum transports in the ECMWF model: evaluation using cloud resolving models and impact upon model climate., ECMWF Workshop Proceedings on New insights and approaches to convective parametrization, Shinfiled Park, Reading, RG2 9AX, United Kingdom.

Gregory, D., Kershaw, R. and Inness, P. M., 1997: Parametrization of momentum transports by convection. II: Tests in single-column and general circulation models., Q. .J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 123, 1153-1183.

Gurevitch, M. I., 1965: Theory of jets in ideal fluids. Academic Press.

Herzegh, P. H. and Hobbs, P. V., 1980: The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in mid-latitude cyclones. Part II: Warm frontal clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 597-611.

Heymsfield, A. J. and Donner, L. J., 1990: A scheme for parametrizing ice-cloud water content in general circluation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1865-1877

Hillel, D., 1982: Introduction to soil physics. Academic Press

Hogström, U, 1988: Non-dimensional wind and temperature profiles in the atmospheric surface layer: A re-evaluation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 42, 55-78.

Holtslag. A. A. M. and De Bruin, H. A. R., 1988: Applied modelling of the night-time surface energy balance over land. J. Appl. Meteorol., 27, 689-704.

Houze, R. A., Locatelli, J. D. and Hobbs, P. V., 1976: Dynamics and cloud microphysics of the rainbands in an occluded frontal system. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1921-1936.

Jacquemin, B., and J. Noilhan, 1990: Sensitivity study and validation of a land-surafce parametrization using the HAPEX-MOBILHY data set. Bound.-Lay. Meteor., 52, 93-134.

Janssen, P. A. E. M., Beljaars, A. C. M., Simmons, A. and Viterbo, P., 1992: The determination of the surface stress in an atmospheric model. Mon. Weather Rev., 120, 2977-2985.

Jarvis, P. J., 1976: The interpretation of the variations in leaf-water potential and stomatal conductance found in canopies in the field. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, B723, 385-610

Johnson, R. H., 1976: The role of convective-scale precipitation downdrafts in cumulus and synoptic scale interactions. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1890-1910.

Johnson, R. H., 1980: Diagnosis of convective and mesoscale motions during Phase III of GATE. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 733-753.

Jones, R. L., Pyle, J. A., Harries, J. E., Zavody, A. M., Russell, J. M. III and Gille, J. C., 1986: The water vapour budget of the stratosphere studied using LIMS and SAMS satellite data. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 112, 1127-1143

Joseph, J. H., Wiscombe, W. J. and Weinman, J. A., 1976: The Delta-Eddington approximation for radiative flux transfer. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2452-2459.

Kalnay, E. and Kanamitsu, M., 1988: Time schemes for strongly nonlinear damping equations. Mon. Weather Rev., 116, 1945-1958.

Kessler, E., 1969: On the distribution and continuity of water substance in atmopsheric circulation. Meteorological Monographs, 10, Americ.Meteor.Soc., Boston, MA.

Kirchoff, G., 1876: Vorlesungen über mathematische physik. Leipzig

Kondo, J., Saigusa, N. and Sato, T., 1990: A parametrization of evaporation from bare soil surfaces. J Appl. Meteorol., 29, 385-389

Koster, R.D., and M.J. Suarez, 1992: Modeling the land surface boundary in climate models as a composite of independent stands. J. Geophys. Res., 97D, 2697-2715.

Kuo, H. L. and Raymond, W. H., 1980: A quasi-one-dimensional cumulus cloud model and parametrization of cumulus heating and mixing effects. Mon. Weather Rev., 108, 991-1009

Lacis, A.A., and V. Oinas, 1991: A description of the correlated k distribution method for modeling nongray gaseous absorption, thermal emission, and multiple scattering in vertically inhomogeneous atmospheres. J. Geophys. Res., 96D, 9027-9063.

Landweber, L., 1961: Motion of immersed and floating bodies. Handbook of fluid Dynamics. 1st ed. McGraw-Hill

Le Mone, M. A. and Pennell, W. T., 1976: The relationship of trade wind cumulus distribution to subcloud layer fluxes and structure. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 524-539.

Le Texier, L. Solomon, S. and Garcia, R. R., 1988: The role of molecular hydrogen and methane oxidation in the water vapour budget of the stratosphere. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 114, 281-295

Lindzen, R. S., 1981: `Some remarks on cumulus parametrization'. Rep. on NASA-GISS Workshop: Clouds in Climate: Modelling and Satellite Observational Studies, 42-51.

Liu, J. Y. and Orville, H. D., 1969: Numerical Modeling of precipitation and cloud shadow effects on mountain-induced cumuli. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 1283-1298

Liu, Q. and Schmetz, J., 1988: On the problem of an analytical solution to the diffusivity factor., Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 61, 23-29.

London, J., Bojkov, R. D., Oltmans, S. and Kelley, J. I., 1976: `Atlas of the global distribution of total ozone, July 1957 - June 1967'. NCAR Technical Note 113+STR.

Los, S.O., G.J. Collatz, P.J. Sellers, C.M. Malmström, N.H. Pollack, R.S. deFries, L. Bounoua, M.T. Parris, C.J. Tucker, and D.A. Dazlich, 2000: A global 9-year biophysical land surface dataset from NOAA AVHRR data. J. Hydrometeor., 1, 183-199.

Lott, F. and Miller, M. J., 1996: A new subgrid-scale orographic drag parametrization: Its formulation and testing, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 123, 101-127.

Louis, J. F., 1979: A parametric model of vertical eddy fluxes in the atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 17, 187-202

Louis, J. F., Tiedtke, M. and Geleyn, J. F., 1982: `A short history of the operational PBL parametrization at ECMWF'. Workshop on boundary layer parametrization, November 1981, ECMWF, Reading, England.

McCumber, M. and Pielke, R. A., 1981: Simulation of the effects of surface fluxes of heat and moisture in a mesoscale numerical model. Part I: Soil layer. J Geophys. Res., 86C, 9929-9938

McFarquhar, G.M., and A.J. Heymsfield, 1997: Parameterization of Tropical cirrus ice crystal size distribution and implications for radiative transfer: Results from CEPEX. J.Atmos.Sci., 54, 2187-2200

Mahfouf, J. F. and Jacquemin, B., 1989: A study of rainfall interception using a land surface paramterization for mesoscale meteorological models. J. Appl. Meteorol., 28, 1282-1302

Mahfouf, J. F. and Noilhan, J., 1991: Comparative study of various formulations from bare soil using in situ data. J. Appl. Meteorol., 30, 1345-1365

Mahrt, L. and Pan, H.-L., 1984: A two-layer model of soil hydrology. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 29, 1-20.

Manabe, S., 1969: Climate and the ocean circulation. PartI: The atmospheric circulation and the hydrology of the earth's surface. Mon. Weather Rev, 97, 739-774

Mason, B. J., 1971: The physics of clouds. Clarendon Prress, Oxford

Mason. P. J. , 1985: `On the parameterization of orographic drag'. MET. O. 14, T.D.N. No. 177, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, UK.

Mason, P.J. , 1991: `Boundary layer parametrization in heterogeneous terrain'. In: ECMWF workshop proceedings on Fine-scale modelling and the development of parametrization schemes.

Miles, J. W. and Huppert, H. E., 1969: Lee waves in a stratified flow. Part 4: Perturbation approximations. J. Fluid Mech., 35, 495-525.

Miller, M. J., Palmer, T. N. and Swinbank, R., 1989: Parametrization and influence of subgrid-scale orography in general circulation and numerical weather prediction models. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 40, 84-109.

Miller, M., Beljaars, A. C. M. and Palmer, T. N., 1992: The sensitivity of the ECMWF model to the parametrization of evaporation from the tropical oceans. J. Climate, 5, 418-434

Milly, P. C. D., 1982: Moisture and heat transport of hyseretic, inhomogeneous porous media: A matric head-based formulation and a numerical model. Water Resources Res., 18, 489-498

Milly, P. C. D. and Dunne, K. A., 1994: Sensitivity of the global water cycle to the water-holding capacity of land. J. Climate, 7, 506-526

Mlawer, E.J., S.J. Taubman, P.D. Brown, M.J. Iacono, and S.A. CLough, 1997: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave. J. Geophys. Res., 102D, 16663-16682.

Morcrette, J.-J., 1991: Radiation and cloud radiative properties in the ECMWF operational weather forecast model. J. Geophys. Res., 96D, 9121-9132.

Morcrette, J.-J. and Fouquart, Y., 1985: On systematic errors in parametrized calculations of longwave radiation transfer. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 111, 691-708.

Morcrette, J.-J. and Fouquart, Y., 1986: The overlapping of cloud layers in shortwave radiation parameterizations. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 321-328.

Morcrette, J.-J., Smith, L. and Fouquart, Y., 1986: Pressure and temperature dependence of the absorption in longwave radiation parametrizations. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 59, 455-469.

Nieuwstadt, F. T. M, 1984: The turbulent structure of the stable, nocturnal boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 2202-2216.

Nitta, T., 1975: Observational determination of cloud mass flux distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 73-91

Noilhan, J. and Planton, S., 1989: A simple parameterization of land surface processes for meteorological models. Mon. Weather Rev., 117, 536-549

Nordeng, T.-E., 1994: Extended versions of the convection parametrization scheme at ECMWF and their impact upon the mean climate and transient activity of the model in the tropics., Research Dept Technical Memorandum No. 206, ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading RG2 9AX, United Kingdom.

Panofsky, H. A., Tennekes, H., Lenschow, D. H. and Wyngaard, J. C., 1977: The characteristics of turbulent velocity components in the surface layer under convective conditions. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 11, 355-361

Patterson, K. A., 1990: `Global distribution of total and total-available soil water-holding capacities'. M.S. Thesis,Department of Geography, University of Delaware

Paulson, C.A., 1970: The mathematical representation of wind speed and temperature profiles in the unstable atmospheric surface layer. J. Appl. Meteorol., 9, 857-861.

Philip, J. R., 1957: Evaporation and moisture and heat fields in the soil. J. Meteorol., 14, 354-366

Phillips, S. P., 1984: Analytical surface pressure and drag for linear hydrostatic flow over three-dimensional elliptical mountains. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 1073-1084.

Pitman, A.J., Z.-L. Yang, J.G Cogley, and A. Henderson-Sellers, 1991: Description of bare essentials of surface transfer for the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre AGCM. Bur. Meteor. Res. Rep. No.32, 86pp.

Press, W. H., Teukolsky, S. A., Vetterling, W. T. and Flannery, B. P., 1992: Numerical recipes in Fortran. Cambridge University Press.

Richards, L. A., 1931: Capillary conduction of liquids through porous mediums. Physics, 1, 318-333

Richtmyer, R. D. and Morton, K. W., 1967: Difference methods for initial value problems. Interscience

Rodgers, C. D., 1967: `The radiative heat budget of the troposphere and lower stratosphere'. Report A2, Planetary Circulation Project, Dept. of Meteorology, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., 99 pp.

Rodgers, C. D. and Walshaw, C. D., 1966: The computation of the infrared cooling rate in planetary atmospheres. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 92, 67-92.

Rutter, A. J., Kershaw, K. A., Robins, P. C. and Morton, A. J., 1972: A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests. Part I: Derivation of teh model from observations in a plantation of Corsican pine. Agric. Meteorol., 9, 367-384

Rutter, A. J., Morton, A. J. and Robins, P. C., 1975: A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests. Part II: Generalization of the model and comparison with observations in some coniferous and hardwood stands. J Appl. Ecol., 12, 367-380

Sellers, P. J., 1985: Canopy reflectance, photosynthesis and transpiration. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 6, 1335-1372.

Savijarvi, H. and P. Raisanen, 1997: Long-wave optical properties of water clouds and rain. Tellus, 50A, 1-11

Sellers, P.J., S.O. Los, C.J. Tucker, C.O. Justice, D.A. Dazlich, G.J. Collatz, and D.A. Randall, 1996: A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) fro GCMs. Part II: The generation of global fields of terrestrial biophysical parameters from satellite data. J. Climate, 9, 706-737.

Sellers, P. J., Mints, Y., Sud, Y. C. and Dalcher, A., 1986: A simple biosphere model (SiB) for use within general circluation models. J Atmos. Sci., 43, 505-531

Sellers, P. J., Meeson, B. W., Hall, F. G., Asrar, G., Murphy, R. E., Schiffer, R. A., Bretherton, F. P., Dickinson, R. E., Ellingson, R. G., Field, C. B., Huemmrich, K. F., Justice, C. O., Melack, J. M., Roulet, N. T., Schimel, D. S. and Try, P. D., 1995: Remote sensing of the land surface for studies of global change: Models - Algorithms - Experiments. Remote Sens. Environ., 51, 3-26.

Shettle, E. P. and Weinman, J. A., 1970: The transfer of solar irradiance through inhomogeneous turbid atmospheres evaluated by Eddington's approximation. J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 1048-1055.

Shuttleworth, W. J., 1988: Evaporation from Amazonian rainforest. Proc. R Soc. London, B233, 321-346

Shuttleworth, W. J. and co-authors, 1984a: Eddy correlation measurements of energy partition for Amazonian forest. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 110, 1143-1162

Shuttleworth. W. J. and co-authors, 1984b: Observations of radiation exchange above and below Amazonian forest. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 110, 1163-1169

Simmons, A. J., Untch, A., Jacob, C., Kallberg,P. and Under, P., 1999: Stratospheric water vapour and tropical tropopause temperatures in ECMWF analyses and muli-year simularions. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 353-

Simpson, J., 1971: On cumulus entrainment and one-dimensional models. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 449-455.

Simpson, J. and Wiggert, V., 1969: Models of precipitating cumulus towers. Mon. Weather Rev., 97, 471-489.

Smith, S. D., 1989: Water vapour flux at the sea interface. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 47, 277-293.

Smith, E. A. and Lei, S., 1992: Surface forcing of the infrared cooling profile over the Tibetan plateau. Part I: Influence of relative longwave radiative heating at high altitude. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 805-822.

Stephens, G. L., 1978: Radiative properties of extended water clouds. Parts I and II. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2111-2122, 2123-2132.

Stephens, G. L., 1979: `Optical properties of eight water cloud types'. C.S.I.R.O., Div. Atmos. Phys., Tech. Paper No.36, 1-36.

Sundqvist, H., 1978: A parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 677-690

Tanre, D., Geleyn, J.-F. and Slingo, J. M., 1984: `First results of the introduction of an advanced aerosol-radiation interaction in the ECMWF low resolution global model'. In Aerosols and Their Climatic Effects. H.E. Gerber and A. Deepak, Eds., A. Deepak Publ., Hampton, Va., 133-177.

Taylor, P.A. , 1987: Comments and further analysis on the effective roughness lengths for use in numerical three- dimensional models, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 39, 403-418.

Taylor, J. P., Edwards, J. M. Glew, M. D., Hignett, P. and Slingo, A. , 1996: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. II: Comparisons with aircraft short-wave observations. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 839-862.

Tibaldi, S. and Geleyn, J.-F. , 1981`: The production of a new orography, land-sea mask and associated climatological surface fields for operational purposes'. ECMWF Tech. Memo No. 40

Tiedtke, M., 1989: A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 117, 1779-1800.

Tiedtke, M., 1993: Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 3040-3061

Tiedtke, M., Heckley, W. A. and Slingo, J. , 1988: Tropical forecasting at ECMWF: On the influence of physical parametrization on the mean structure of forecasts and analyses. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 114, 639-664.

Troen, I and Mahrt, L., 1986: A simple model of the atmospheric boundary layer; sensitivity to surface evaporation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 37, 129-148.

van den Hurk, B.J.J.M., P. Viterbo, A.C.M. Beljaars, and A.K. Betts, 2000: Offline validation of the ERA40 surface scheme. ECMWF Tech. Mem. 295, 42 pp.

Verseghy, D.L., 1991: CLASS-A Canadian land surface scheme for GCMs. I. Soil model. Int. J. Climatol., 11, 111-133.

Viterbo, P. and Beljaars, A. C. M., 1995: `An improved land surface parametrization scheme in the ECMWF model and its validation'. Technical Report 75, Research Department, ECMWF.

Viterbo, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., Mahouf, J.-F. and Teixeira, J., 1999: The representation of soil moisture freezing and its impact on the stable boundary layer. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 2401-2426

Viterbo, P., and A.K. Betts, 1999a: The impact of the ECMWF reanalysis soil water on forecasts of the July 1993 Mississippi flood. J. Geophys. Res., 104D, 19,361-19,366.

Viterbo, P., and A.K. Betts, 1999b: The forecast impact of the albedo of the boreal forests in the presence of snow. J. Geophys. Res., 104D, 27,803-27,810.

Wallace, J. M., Tibaldi, S. and Simmons, A., 1983: Reduction of systematic forecast errors in the ECMWF model through the introduction of an envelope orography. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 109, 683-717.

Warrilow, D. A., and Buckley, E. , 1989: The impact of land surface processes on the moisture budget of a climate model. Ann. Geophys., 7, 439-450.

Warrilow, D. L., Sangster, A. B. and Slingo, A., 1986: `Modelling of land-surface processes and their influence on European climate'. UK Met Office Report, Met O 20, Tech Note 38, 92 pp.

Washington, W. M. and. Williamson, D. L, 1977: `A description of the NCAR GCMs'. In GCMs of the Atmosphere. Methods in computational physics, Vol. 17, J. Chang, Ed., Academic Press, 111-172.

Wexler, R. and Atlas, D., 1959: Precipitation generating cells. J. Meteorol., 16, 327-332. Yanai, M., S. Esbensen and J.-H. Chu, 1973: Determination of bulk properties of tropical cloud clusters from large-scale heat and moisture budgets. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 611-627.

Wilcox, R. W. and Belmont, A. D., 1977: `Ozone concentration by latitude, altitude and month, near 80 W'. Report, Control Data Corporation, Contract No. DOT-FA77WA-3999.

Williams, P.J., and M.W. Smith, 1989: The frozen earth. Fundamentals of geocryology. Cambridge Univ. Press, 308 pp.

Wilson, M. F. and Henderson-Sellers, A., 1985: A global archive of land cover and soils data for use in general circulation models. J. Climatol., 5, 119-143

Wilson, M. F., Henderson-Sellers, A. Dickinson, R. E. and Kennedy, P. J., 1987: Sensitivity of the biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) to the inclusion of variable soil characteristics. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol. 26, 341-362

Xue, Y., Sellers, P. J., Kinter, J. L. and Shukla, J., 1991: A simplified biosphere model for global climate studies. J. Climate, 4, 345-364

First Section
Previous Section

03.04.2002